(1.) Natural. Thus Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses ( Ex. 2:10), and Mordecai Esther ( Esther 2:7).

(2.) National. God adopted Israel ( Ex. 4:22; Deut. 7:6; Hos. 11:1; Rom. 9:4).

(3.) Spiritual. An act of God's grace by which he brings men into the number of his redeemed family, and makes them partakers of all the blessings he has provided for them. Adoption represents the new relations into which the believer is introduced by justification, and the privileges connected therewith, viz., an interest in God's peculiar love ( John 17:23; Rom. 5:5-8), a spiritual nature (2 Pet. 1:4; John 1:13), the possession of a spirit becoming children of God (1 Pet. 1:14; 2 John 4; Rom. 8:15-21; Gal. 5:1; Heb. 2:15), present protection, consolation, supplies ( Luke 12:27-32; John 14:18; 1 Cor. 3:21-23; 2 Cor. 1:4), fatherly chastisements ( Heb. 12:5-11), and a future glorious inheritance ( Rom. 8:17,Rom. 8:23; James 2:5; Phil. 3:21).

Adoram - See ADONIRAM.

Adore - to worship; to express reverence and homage. The forms of adoration among the Jews were putting off the shoes ( Ex. 3:5; Josh. 5:15), and prostration ( Gen. 17:3; Ps. 95:6; Isa. 44:15, Isa. 44:17, Isa. 44:19; Isa 46:6). To "kiss the Son" in Ps. 2:12 is to adore and worship him. (See Dan. 3:5, Dan. 3:6.) The word itself does not occur in Scripture.

Adrammelech - Adar the king. (1.) An idol; a form of the sun-god worshipped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (2 Kings 17:31), and brought by the Sepharvite colonists into Samaria. (2.) A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38).

Adramyttium - a city of Asia Minor on the coast of Mysia, which in early times was called AEolis. The ship in which Paul embarked at Caesarea belonged to this city ( Acts 27:2). He was conveyed in it only to Myra, in Lycia, whence he sailed in an Alexandrian ship to Italy. It was a rare thing for a ship to sail from any port of Palestine direct for Italy. It still bears the name Adramyti, and is a place of some traffic.

Adria - ( Acts 27:27; R.V., "the sea of Adria"), the Adriatic Sea, including in Paul's time the whole of the Mediterranean lying between Crete and Sicily. It is the modern Gulf of Venice, the Mare Superum_ of the Romans, as distinguished from the Mare Inferum_ or Tyrrhenian Sea.

Adriel - flock of God, the son of Barzillai, the Meholathite, to whom Saul gave in marriage his daughter Merab (1 Sam. 18:19). The five sons that sprang from this union were put to death by the Gibeonites (2 Sam. 21:8,2 Sam. 21:9. Here it is said that Michal "brought up" [R.V., "bare"] these five sons, either that she treated them as if she had been their own mother, or that for "Michal" we should read "Merab," as in 1 Sam. 18:19).

Adullam - one of the royal cities of the Canaanites, now 'Aid-el-ma ( Josh. 12:15;Josh 15:35). It stood on the old Roman road in the valley of Elah (q.v.), which was the scene of David's memorable victory over Goliath (1 Sam. 17:2), and not far from Gath. It was one of the towns which Rehoboam fortified against Egypt (2 Chr. 11:7). It was called "the glory of Israel" ( Micah 1:15).

The Cave of Adullam has been discovered about 2 miles south of the scene of David's triumph, and about 13 miles west from Bethlehem. At this place is a hill some 500 feet high pierced with numerous caverns, in one of which David gathered together "every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented" (1 Sam. 22:2). Some of these caverns are large enough to hold 200 or 300 men. According to tradition this cave was at Wady Khureitun, between Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, but this view cannot be well maintained.

Adullamite - an inhabitant of the city of Adullam ( Gen. 38:1,Gen. 38:12,Gen. 38:20).

Adultery - conjugal infidelity. An adulterer was a man who had illicit intercourse with a married or a betrothed woman, and such a woman was an adulteress. Intercourse between a married man and an unmarried woman was fornication. Adultery was regarded as a great social wrong, as well as a great sin.

The Mosaic law ( Num. 5:11-31) prescribed that the suspected wife should be tried by the ordeal of the "water of jealousy." There is, however, no recorded instance of the application of this law. In subsequent times the Rabbis made various regulations with the view of discovering the guilty party, and of bringing about a divorce. It has been inferred from John 8:1-11 that this sin became very common during the age preceding the destruction of Jerusalem.

Idolatry, covetousness, and apostasy are spoken of as adultery spiritually ( Jer. 3:6,Jer. 3:8,Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 16:32; Hos. 1:2-3; Rev. 2:22). An apostate church is an adulteress ( Isa. 1:21; Ezek. 23:4, Ezek. 23:7, Ezek. 23:37), and the Jews are styled "an adulterous generation" ( Matt. 12:39). (Comp. Rev. 12.)

Adummim - the red ones, a place apparently on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem, "on the south side of the torrent" Wady Kelt, looking toward Gilgal, mentioned Josh. 15:7; Josh 18:17. It was nearly half-way between Jerusalem and Jericho, and now bears the name of Tal-at-ed-Dumm. It is supposed to have been the place referred to in the parable of the Good Samaritan ( Luke 10:30-37). Recently a new carriage-road has been completed, and carriages for the first time have come along this road from Jerusalem.

Adversary - (Heb. satan), an opponent or foe (1 Kings 5:4;1 Kings 11:14,1 Kings 5:23,1 Kings 5:25; Luke 13:17); one that speaks against another, a complainant ( Matt. 5:25; Luke 12:58); an enemy ( Luke 18:3), and specially the devil (1 Pet. 5:8).

Advocate - (Gr. parakletos), one who pleads another's cause, who helps another by defending or comforting him. It is a name given by Christ three times to the Holy Ghost ( John 14:16;John 15:26;John 16:7, where the Greek word is rendered "Comforter," q.v.). It is applied to Christ in 1 John 2:1, where the same Greek word is rendered "Advocate," the rendering which it should have in all the places where it occurs. Tertullus "the orator" ( Acts 24:1) was a Roman advocate whom the Jews employed to accuse Paul before Felix.

AEnon - springs, a place near Salim where John baptized ( John 3:23). It was probably near the upper source of the Wady Far'ah, an open valley extending from Mount Ebal to the Jordan. It is full of springs. A place has been found called 'Ainun, four miles north of the springs.

Affection - feeling or emotion. Mention is made of "vile affections" ( Rom. 1:26) and "inordinate affection" ( Col. 3:5). Christians are exhorted to set their affections on things above ( Col. 3:2). There is a distinction between natural and spiritual or gracious affections ( Ezek. 33:32).

Affinity - relationship by alliance (2 Chr. 18:1) or by marriage (1 Kings 3:1). Marriages are prohibited within certain degrees of affinity, enumerated Lev. 18:6-17. Consanguinity is relationship by blood.

Afflictions - common to all ( Job 5:7;Job 14:1; Ps. 34:19); are for the good of men ( James 1:2,James 1:3,James 1:12; 2 Cor. 12:7) and the glory of God (2 Cor. 12:7-10; 1 Pet. 4:14), and are to be borne with patience by the Lord's people ( Ps. 94:12; Prov. 3:12). They are all directed by God ( Lam. 3:33), and will result in the everlasting good of his people (2 Cor. 4:16-18) in Christ Jesus ( Rom. 8:35-39).

Agabus - a "prophet," probably one of the seventy disciples of Christ. He prophesied at Antioch of an approaching famine ( Acts 11:27,Acts 11:28). Many years afterwards he met Paul at Caesarea, and warned him of the bonds and affliction that awaited him at Jerusalem should he persist in going thither ( Acts 21:10-12).

Agag - flame, the usual title of the Amalekite kings, as "Pharaoh" was of the Egyptian. (1.) A king of the Amalekites referred to by Balaam ( Num. 24:7). He lived at the time of the Exodus.

(2.) Another king of the Amalekites whom Saul spared unlawfully, but whom Samuel on his arrival in the camp of Saul ordered, in retributive justice (Judg. 1), to be brought out and cut in pieces (1 Sam. 15:8-33. Comp. Ex. 17:11; Num. 14:45).

Agagite - a name applied to Haman and also to his father ( Esther 3:1,Esther 3:10;Esther 8:3,Esther 3:5). Probably it was equivalent to Amalekite.

Agate - (Heb. shebo), a precious stone in the breast-plate of the high priest ( Ex. 28:19;Ex 39:12), the second in the third row. This may be the agate properly so called, a semi-transparent crystallized quartz, probably brought from Sheba, whence its name. In Isa. 54:12 and Ezek. 27:16, this word is the rendering of the Hebrew cadcod, which means "ruddy," and denotes a variety of minutely crystalline silica more or less in bands of different tints.

This word is from the Greek name of a stone found in the river Achates in Sicily.

Age - used to denote the period of a man's life ( Gen. 47:28), the maturity of life ( John 9:21), the latter end of life ( Job 11:17), a generation of the human race ( Job 8:8), and an indefinite period ( Eph. 2:7;Eph 3:5,Eph. 2:21; Col. 1:26). Respect to be shown to the aged ( Lev. 19:32). It is a blessing to communities when they have old men among them ( Isa. 65:20; Zech. 8:4). The aged supposed to excel in understanding ( Job 12:20;Job 15:10;Job 32:4,Job 12:9; 1 Kings 12:6,1 Kings 12:8). A full age the reward of piety ( Job 5:26; Gen. 15:15).

Agee - fugitive, the father of Shammah, who was one of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23:11)

Agony - contest; wrestling; severe struggling with pain and suffering. Anguish is the reflection on evil that is already past, while agony is a struggle with evil at the time present. It is only used in the New Testament by Luke 2 Sam 22:44) to describe our Lord's fearful struggle in Gethsemane.

The verb from which the noun "agony" is derived is used to denote an earnest endeavour or striving, as "Strive [agonize] to enter" ( Luke 13:24); "Then would my servants fight" [agonize] ( John 18:36). Comp. 1 Cor. 9:25; Col. 1:29; Col 4:12; 1 Tim. 6:12; 2 Tim. 4:7, where the words "striveth," "labour," "conflict," "fight," are the renderings of the same Greek verb.

Agriculture - Tilling the ground ( Gen. 2:15;Gen 4:2,Gen. 2:3,Gen. 2:12) and rearing cattle were the chief employments in ancient times. The Egyptians excelled in agriculture. And after the Israelites entered into the possession of the Promised Land, their circumstances favoured in the highest degree a remarkable development of this art. Agriculture became indeed the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth.

The year in Palestine was divided into six agricultural periods:-

I. SOWING TIME. Tisri, latter half (beginning about the autumnal equinox.) Marchesvan. Kisleu, former half. Early rain due = first showers of autumn.

II. UNRIPE TIME. Kisleu, latter half. Tebet. Sebat, former half.

III. COLD SEASON. Sebat, latter half. Adar. [Veadar.] Nisan, former half. Latter rain due ( Deut. 11:14; Jer. 5:24; Hos. 6:3; Zech. 10:1; James 5:7; Job 29:23).

IV. HARVEST TIME. Nisan, latter half. (Beginning about vernal equinox. Barley green. Passover.) Ijar. Sivan, former half., Wheat ripe. Pentecost.

V. SUMMER (total absence of rain) Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half.

VI. SULTRY SEASON Ab, latter half. Elul. Tisri, former half., Ingathering of fruits.

The six months from the middle of Tisri to the middle of Nisan were occupied with the work of cultivation, and the rest of the year mainly with the gathering in of the fruits. The extensive and easily-arranged system of irrigation from the rills and streams from the mountains made the soil in every part of Palestine richly productive ( Ps. 1:3;Ps 65:10; Prov. 21:1; Isa. 30:25; Isa 32:2, Isa. 30:20; Hos. 12:11), and the appliances of careful cultivation and of manure increased its fertility to such an extent that in the days of Solomon, when there was an abundant population, "20,000 measures of wheat year by year" were sent to Hiram in exchange for timber (1 Kings 5:11), and in large quantities also wheat was sent to the Tyrians for the merchandise in which they traded ( Ezek. 27:17). The wheat sometimes produced an hundredfold ( Gen. 26:12; Matt. 13:23). Figs and pomegranates were very plentiful ( Num. 13:23), and the vine and the olive grew luxuriantly and produced abundant fruit ( Deut. 33:24).

Lest the productiveness of the soil should be exhausted, it was enjoined that the whole land should rest every seventh year, when all agricultural labour would entirely cease ( Lev. 25:1-7; Deut. 15:1-10).

It was forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds ( Deut. 22:9). A passer-by was at liberty to eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but he was not permitted to carry away any ( Deut. 23:24,Deut. 23:25; Matt. 12:1). The poor were permitted to claim the corners of the fields and the gleanings. A forgotten sheaf in the field was to be left also for the poor. (See Lev. 19:9, Lev. 19:10; Deut. 24:19.)

Agricultural implements and operations.

The sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and Assyria throw much light on this subject, and on the general operations of agriculture. Ploughs of a simple construction were known in the time of Moses ( Deut. 22:10; comp. Job 1:14). They were very light, and required great attention to keep them in the ground ( Luke 9:62). They were drawn by oxen ( Job 1:14), cows (1 Sam. 6:7), and asses ( Isa. 30:24); but an ox and an ass must not be yoked together in the same plough ( Deut. 22:10). Men sometimes followed the plough with a hoe to break the clods ( Isa. 28:24). The oxen were urged on by a "goad," or long staff pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose it could be used as a spear also ( Judg. 3:31; 1 Sam. 13:21).

When the soil was prepared, the seed was sown broadcast over the field ( Matt. 13:3-8). The "harrow" mentioned in Job 39:10 was not used to cover the seeds, but to break the clods, being little more than a thick block of wood. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle ( Isa. 32:20); but doubtless there was some kind of harrow also for covering in the seed scattered in the furrows of the field.

The reaping of the corn was performed either by pulling it up by the roots, or cutting it with a species of sickle, according to circumstances. The corn when cut was generally put up in sheaves ( Gen. 37:7; Lev. 23:10-15; Ruth 2:7, Ruth 2:15; Job 24:10; Jer. 9:22; Micah 4:12), which were afterwards gathered to the threshing-floor or stored in barns ( Matt. 6:26).

The process of threshing was performed generally by spreading the sheaves on the threshing-floor and causing oxen and cattle to tread repeatedly over them ( Deut. 25:4; Isa. 28:28). On occasions flails or sticks were used for this purpose ( Ruth 2:17; Isa. 28:27). There was also a "threshing instrument" ( Isa. 41:15; Amos 1:3) which was drawn over the corn. It was called by the Hebrews a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge (2 Sam. 24:22; 1 Chr. 21:23; Isa. 3:15). It was somewhat like the Roman tribulum, or threshing instrument.

When the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being thrown up against the wind ( Jer. 4:11), and afterwards tossed with wooden scoops ( Isa. 30:24). The shovel and the fan for winnowing are mentioned in Ps. 35:5, Job 21:18, Isa. 17:13. The refuse of straw and chaff was burned ( Isa. 5:24). Freed from impurities, the grain was then laid up in granaries till used ( Deut. 28:8; Prov. 3:10; Matt. 6:26; Matt 13:30; Luke 12:18).

Agrippa I. - the grandson of Herod the Great, and son of Aristobulus and Bernice. The Roman emperor Caligula made him governor first of the territories of Philip, then of the tetrarchy of Lysanias, with the title of king ("king Herod"), and finally of that of Antipas, who was banished, and of Samaria and Judea. Thus he became ruler over the whole of Palestine. He was a persecutor of the early Christians. He slew James, and imprisoned Peter ( Acts 12:1-4). He died at Caesarea, being "eaten of worms" ( Acts 12:23), A.D. 44. (Comp. Josephus, Ant. xix. 8.)